Another core pillar of my research aims to uncover the short- and long-term consequences of exposure to violence on political attitudes and behavior. Researchers have long struggled to understand why some victimized individuals adopt pro-social outgroup beliefs while others seem to adopt more exclusionary ones. My research in this area investigates these divergent effects. My work on the legacies of the Holocaust examined the long-term consequences of victimization, while ongoing projects in this area unpack the more immediate consequences of exposure to political violence on attitudes in a series of studies in Ukraine and in Israel-Palestine.